 1 Sierra Club
 2 Camping tips
 3 Mt McKinley, Alaska + trecking/climbing gear
 4 Mt Elbrus - considered highest in Europe

\1 Sierra Club

IINTRODUCTION  Sierra Club, organization dedicated to protecting the natural environment and wildlife in the United States and throughout the world. The group educates people on how to conserve the earth's ecosystems and resources to prevent wastefulness or destruction; lobbies for more legislation to preserve the environment; organizes conservation programs and hiking trips in many countries; and publishes books, calendars, and Sierra, a bimonthly magazine. 
The Sierra Club has been instrumental in the designation and protection of several United States national parks and preserves, public land set aside by the Congress of the United States that has special scenic, historical, or scientific value, such as Yosemite National Park in California and Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona. Based in San Francisco, California, the organization has chapters throughout the United States and Canada.
The Sierra Club was founded in 1892 by a group of outdoor enthusiasts led by John Muir, a Scottish-American explorer, writer, and naturalist. In the early 1880s Muir published a series of articles in Century magazine, calling attention to the destruction that livestock caused to the meadows and forests of the Sierra Nevada mountain range in northern California. Muir and Robert Underwood Johnson, the associate editor of Century, proposed the designation of a national park to preserve part of the region. In response, the U.S. Congress created Yosemite National Park in 1890. Two years later Muir and other conservationists formed the Sierra Club to protect Yosemite and to promote preservation of America's natural heritage. Muir served as president of the organization until 1914.

PROTECTING THE WILDERNESS For the first 50 years, the Sierra Club mainly lobbied for new national parks and opposed efforts to construct dams in several protected areas. In 1899 the Sierra Club helped persuade the U.S. Congress to create Mount Rainier National Park in Washington state. In 1903 Muir met with President Theodore Roosevelt in Yosemite to help the president plan his landmark conservation program. Roosevelt's project helped establish more national parks (public land primarily used for recreational purposes) and national reserves (land managed by the government to protect wildlife or for scientific research). 
The Sierra Club launched its first nationwide campaign in 1905 to stop the construction of the Hetch Hetchy Dam in California. This project was designed to generate hydroelectric power and transport water from the Hetch Hetchy Valley in the Sierra Nevada mountains to San Francisco. The Sierra Club argued that the dam would flood and damage part of Yosemite National Park. After years of debate, President Woodrow Wilson authorized the project in 1913. A year later, Muir died. Although the campaign failed to stop the construction of the dam, it brought national attention to the organization and established the Sierra Club as a leader of the conservation movement.
The Sierra Club continued to push for additional national parks, helping convince the U.S. Congress to establish the Olympic National Park in Washington in 1938 and Kings Canyon National Park in California in 1940. During the 1940s and 1950s the group also successfully stopped the construction of dams in areas such as Glacier National Park in Montana, Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado and Utah, and Kings Canyon National Park.
David Brower, an editor at the University of California Press, became the Sierra Club's first executive director in 1952. Under his leadership, the organization began publishing a variety of books and calendars, many containing photographs by the prominent American photographer Ansel Adams, a longtime Sierra Club member. By 1960 the organization had established itself as a leading publisher of nature photographs. Brower also started a campaign for legislation to protect certain areas in the United States from the construction of roads, buildings, or any other human-made developments with the exception of hiking trails. These ideals were part of the Wilderness Act approved by the U.S. Congress in 1964.
In 1963 the Sierra Club opened an office in Washington, D.C., and began fighting federal proposals to dam the Grand Canyon in Arizona. The Sierra Club published a number of full-page advertisements in major U.S. newspapers to recruit people to lobby for the protection of Grand Canyon National Park. As a result of the advertisements, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) took away the Sierra Club's right to raise tax-deductible contributions in 1966. Although the nonprofit organization would still not have to pay taxes on its income, the group's supporters could no longer deduct their contributions from their taxes. The IRS claimed the Sierra Club was heavily engaged in efforts to influence legislation, which violated the tax-deductible regulations. However, the high-profile campaign prompted many people to make donations and join the Sierra Club that year. Within three years of the Grand Canyon campaign, the group's membership doubled, from 39,000 to 78,000 people. In 1968 the Sierra Club succeeded in stopping the damming of the Grand Canyon. That same year the organization helped establish Redwood National Park in California. 

EXPANDED SCOPE In 1971 the Sierra Club expanded its mission from protecting the United States wilderness to protecting the global environment. The organization launched the Sierra Club International Program to educate citizens around the world to work with governments, businesses, and other institutions to conserve the earth's natural resources and ecosystems. The international program focused on issues such as global population growth and worldwide human rights policies to protect environmental activists. That same year the organization started the Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund (now the Earthjustice Legal Defense Fund), an independent association designed to provide legal services to groups and individuals who work to protect the environment.
Also during the 1970s the organization helped pass legislation to give more protection to national forests. In addition, they persuaded the U.S. Congress to expand the boundaries of many national parks and preserves, including those of Redwood National Park, Grand Canyon National Park, and the Big Cypress National Preserve in Florida. In 1977 the Sierra Club was among the groups that convinced President Jimmy Carter to support a gas pipeline route through Alaska that avoided the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.
The Sierra Club started to endorse candidates for public office in 1980. By 1982 the organization supported candidates in more than 170 congressional races and 150 state and local campaigns. But as the group became more involved in direct lobbying on national legislative issues, other conservation groups claimed the Sierra Club frequently compromised environmental positions in order to help pass legislation. Membership began to drop in the early 1990s. Many critics of the organization complained that the Sierra Club had become too bureaucratic and was largely made up of older, predominately white members. 

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS In 1991, 17-year-old environmentalist Adam Werbach founded the Sierra Student Coalition. This arm of the organization is dedicated to training student activists, registering people to vote, and organizing national environmental campaigns. Although the Sierra Club started to gain more members, financial contributions to the group declined from 1993 to 1994. Consequently, the Sierra Club had an operating budget deficit of approximately $1.5 million and was forced to reduce its staff by 10 percent in 1994. 
Throughout the 1990s the organization worked to toughen air pollution standards and campaigned for worldwide policies to prevent global warming. In 1996 Werbach became the organization's youngest president at age 23. He helped implement additional strategies to recruit young people and racial minorities to the group. By the late 1990s, the Sierra Club had approximately 600,000 members.


\2 Camping

.. provides an opportunity to experience nature firsthand. Campers participate in fishing, hunting, swimming, plant study, bird and wildlife watching, and nature photography. Just as importantly, camping helps people escape the stress of city life. It provides physical benefits when it involves hiking to, from, and around a campsite, and many outdoor enthusiasts believe that camping instills confidence in youngsters and offers older campers opportunities to challenge themselves in unfamiliar surroundings. Recent improvements in camping gear and a growing number of organizations that teach people wilderness safety have made it easier to spend several days or even weeks in the outdoors.

TYPES OF CAMPING Camping takes many forms. In the 19th century American naturalist and explorer John Muir would set off into the woods with little more than a sack of food and a journal in which to write his thoughts. In the early 20th century American conservationist and philosopher Aldo Leopold paddled a canoe and rode horseback through the wilderness of the Midwest while taking notes for his books, including Game Management (1933) and A Sand County Almanac (1949). The works of Muir and Leopold, as well as writings by Americans Edward Abbey and Henry David Thoreau, have inspired others to spend time in the wilderness. 
Modern enthusiasts may share the emotions of earlier naturalists, along with their desire to experience nature, but they usually camp in a different manner. Backpacking most closely resembles the type of camping practiced by Muir and Leopold. Other campers drive to a campsite, setting up camp near their car or camping in a recreational vehicle.

Backpacking
 People throughout the world enjoy hiking to wilderness campsites, usually on established trails. This activity is called backpacking because it involves carrying such essential camping gear as a tent, food, clothing, and sleeping bag on the back in a bag called a backpack. Backpacking is best suited for those who are in good physical condition as it may require walking several miles. Moreover it is sometimes necessary to climb steep paths on mountainsides, cross small streams, and spend long days on the trail to reach a secluded, quiet, and solitary campsite. The reward for this effort can be a serene mountain lake, beautiful views of the surrounding wilderness, and wildlife seen along the way.
In most of the world, government agencies regulate camping activities by overseeing park systems, wilderness areas, and protected land. Some countries, however, have few regulations, and enthusiasts are allowed to camp anywhere on public land. In the United States, camping options for backpackers are abundant because of the hiking trails that crisscross lands managed by the National Park Service (a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior), the U.S. Forest Service, state parks, and the Interior Department's Bureau of Land Management (BLM). Some land management agencies, such as the National Parks Service, require that backpackers register and obtain permits (called backcountry reservations) before entering wilderness areas. Others simply require that backpackers set up their campsite away from the trail and at least 30 m (100 ft) from lakes, rivers, and streams to avoid polluting sources of drinking water.

Car Camping
 Car camping is a favorite pastime of families with young children, senior citizens, and those who do not want to backpack. Instead of hauling everything on their backs, car camping enthusiasts carry their gear in a car or van. Car campers can bring along as much camping gear as their vehicle can hold. 
Car camping sites typically include an area for a tent, a ready-to-use fire pit or grill, and restrooms. Some sites also offer showers and a nearby convenience store. Many campsites in national or state parks are located near bodies of water and trails that campers can enjoy during the day. Car camping is not for those seeking remote or solitary locations, but many people enjoy the social aspects of meeting fellow campers and camping in larger groups. Many first-time campers try car camping to become familiar with wilderness areas and to bolster their confidence through short day hikes on nearby trails.

Recreational Vehicle Camping
 Camping in recreational vehicles (RVs) is similar to car camping, except that people can sleep in most types of RVs. They also can bring along such leisure items as lawn chairs and bicycles and park in designated campsites. The fanciest RVs provide a home away from home, complete with a bathroom, kitchen, living room, and bedroom. More expensive RVs are motorized and can be driven from campsite to campsite. Other types of RVs are towed behind a car or truck. Some models open to create a tent at the campground. An RV gives campers the freedom to tour a large geographic area without worrying about accommodations. 

Winter Camping
 Winter camping is a specialized form of backpacking that is becoming increasingly popular. Because hiking in deep snow can be extremely tiring, winter campers use snowshoes, skis, or a vehicle such as a snowmobile to reach secluded areas. Campsites near natural hot springs are a favorite of many winter campers. To enter the wilderness safely during winter, campers must be experienced and physically fit. They may face temperatures below O C (32 F). 
Many tents do not shield against fierce winter winds, so winter campers build shelters called snow caves by burrowing into deep snow drifts with specially made snow shovels. Some winter campers even build igloo-like shelters from blocks of snow and ice. Total and incomparable silence and a pristine, snow-covered landscape make the added effort worthwhile for most winter campers.

CAMPSITES Just as there are several types of camping, there are also various types of campsites where campers can make their temporary home. Campsites are found in forests and deserts, on high plains and mountains, and along lakesides and ocean beaches. Most campsites fall into three general categories: commercial, front country, and backcountry.

Commercial campgrounds serve as campsites for RV and car campers on the outskirts of national and state parks and along highways throughout North America. Owners of commercial campgrounds charge campers on a daily or weekly basis, and provide campsites equipped with hookups for electricity and water. They may also provide such amenities as showers, laundry facilities, or a swimming pool. Many commercial campgrounds belong to a club or network that allows its members to reserve campsites in advance. These groups also provide social activities, such as dances, card playing, and craft seminars.

Front country campsites occur in areas that have a woodsy or wilderness character but are easily accessible. Many of them are located near a lake, river, or stream. They provide car and RV campers with restrooms, a place to build a fire, and a spigot for drinking water. During the summer, many national parks charge campers a small fee for each night they spend in a front country campground. These campsites offer the flavor of backwoods life accompanied by the convenience of nearby gift shops, restaurants, and grocery stores.

Backcountry Campsites
 The backcountry, or wilderness, offers the most remote campsites, reached only on foot or horseback. Backcountry campsites are found in national parks and forests, state parks, federally designated wilderness areas, and BLM land. This is where backpackers go to watch animals in their natural habitats, to flee all signs of human development, and to enjoy a rudimentary lifestyle. The increasing popularity of backcountry campsites has led the National Park Service to limit the use of sites it maintains and to minimize campers' impact on these sites. Backpackers are required to pitch their tents only on designated campsites and to use a rustic restroom, such as an outhouse or pit toilet. Other methods of minimizing impact on campsites include communal cooking areas at a safe distance from tent sites, and devices to hang food out of reach of animals. 
In many national parks backpackers must make a reservation at a regional ranger station to use a designated campsite. The reservation system helps the National Parks Service maintain the backcountry's wilderness qualities, set guidelines for interaction with backcountry wildlife, and rescue backpackers should they become lost or injured.
Many backcountry campsites are not maintained by the National Parks Service, however, and it is the camper's responsibility to follow guidelines for minimizing impact on the wilderness. The goal of guidelines for low-impact or no-impact camping is simple: After campers leave a wilderness area, it should appear as if no one has been there. Campers should take out of the backcountry everything they brought along, plus their trash. 
DSelecting and Conserving a Campsite Several simple guidelines for selecting a campsite promote safety and help minimize impact on the backcountry.
Camp off the trail to stay out of the way of other campers, and camp away from water sources to avoid polluting them with wastewater or trash.
Pitch the tent in a flat spot free of rocks, roots, and spiky plants. Forest duff, a mat of decaying leaves and branches, is the most comfortable groundcover to sleep on, followed by sand, then gravel. Avoid damp, vegetated areas, and do not crush existing plants. (Many backcountry plant species take three to four years to recuperate from a camper's carelessness.) Where there is an obvious tent site that others have used, pitch the tent there to minimize the impact of a stay.
Check for hazards. Cast a glance upward for dead branches before setting up the tent, as they can sometimes break off during high winds. In mountainous areas, avoid avalanche and rock chutes (identified by rock piles at the base of a slope). Burrowing into trees and rocks protects a camper from wind. Pitching the tent with its back to the wind creates a calm area at the tent's door, where campers enter and exit. It also takes advantage of the tent's structure, as the back wall is made of a single piece of fabric and can best absorb gusts of wind.
Hang food, soaps, clothes worn while preparing food, and other fragrant items in a bag from a tree limb at least 3 m (10 ft) off the ground. This precaution keeps raccoons, bears, and other animals with excellent senses of smell out of a camper's food and away from the campsite during the night.

PLANNING A CAMPING TRIP The key to any enjoyable camping trip is planning. A decision on where to camp hinges on personal preference, but planning the trip before leaving helps campers avoid preventable mishaps and gives them options should something unexpected occur. Many situations-bad weather, injury, or simply a crowded campsite-are less alarming if campers are prepared.

Getting Information
 Travel guides and magazines, state tourism boards, and Internet sites are just a few of the places that can provide information needed to plan a camping trip, whether to a favorite mountain lake or an unfamiliar river gorge. Local stores that sell camping equipment are also valuable resources. Many stores provide bulletin boards that note weather forecasts, trail conditions, tide tables, and other useful information. Talking with other campers is a way to learn more about camping and about a particular region. Many backcountry veterans enjoy relating information about local camping areas and their camping mishaps.

Maps and a Compass
 After selecting a destination, campers need to decide what to bring. A map of the area and a compass are two of the most important items to pack. Knowing how to use them before leaving home is essential.
Experienced campers who intend to spend several days in the backcountry always carry a topographical, or topo, map of the area. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) produces topographical maps that show not only roads and rivers but also detailed information about such landforms as cliffs, mountains, ridges, and ravines. Topo maps help backpackers predict how strenuous a trip will be and what obstacles, such as streams, swamps, or mountain passes, they will encounter. Maps made by the USGS are accurate and up-to-date, and can be purchased at many locations, including Forest Service ranger stations and stores that specialize in camping gear.

First-Aid Kit
 Whether a camper plans to make a short day hike from a front country campground or spend a week in the backcountry, a first-aid kit is a must. Many campers make their own, but outdoor stores offer kits that contain the essentials. Besides pain relievers, Band-Aids, and antibiotic ointment, store-purchased kits also include sanitary swabs to disinfect a wound, ointments to relieve the pain of insect bites, and water purification tablets. Moleskin, a cotton adhesive fabric used to cover a blister, is recommended by many campers. Some veteran backpackers wrap duct tape around their heels to prevent their shoes from rubbing and causing blisters. The farther into the backcountry campers plan to travel, the more extensive their first-aid kit should be.
Campers should know how to use items in a first-aid kit before leaving home and should be familiar with basic first-aid techniques, such as how to construct a splint or sling. Knowing how to treat burns and care for cuts, scrapes, muscle strains, sprains, and fractures is also important. The American Red Cross and various camping organizations provide training in basic first-aid procedures. Many books are also available to familiarize campers with wilderness medicine or with specific medical problems that may occur in the backcountry.
DPhysical Conditioning Another aspect of planning overlooked by many first-time campers is physical conditioning. Stretching, doing sit-ups and push-ups, and walking several miles a day are just a few ways campers can prepare. A medium to high level of physical fitness helps campers avoid injuries and accidents that can result from fatigue.

CAMPING GEAR Equipment used to hike and make camp in the backcountry includes a backpack; clothing and boots; a tent and sleeping bag; and food, water, and a stove. Because types of camping vary, campers should select appropriate gear for their trip. Deciding what is the appropriate gear can be confusing, but magazines, books, veteran campers, and sporting goods stores can provide advice.

Proper clothing protects campers from plants, hot sun, and inclement weather. In summer many campers wear shorts and a cotton T-shirt to stay cool on the trail. While hiking on trails enclosed by bushy plants, however, hikers will occasionally wear lightweight pants to protect their legs from nettles, poison ivy, and spiny plants that can irritate the skin. They also pack warm, comfortable clothing such as a light jacket and pants to wear during the evening.
In spring, fall, and winter, temperatures can be unpredictable. Experienced campers layer their clothing to stay warm. Layering typically starts with insulating long underwear or a thermal shirt next to the skin. Many campers prefer long underwear of a synthetic material instead of cotton because once cotton becomes wet or damp, the material takes a long time to dry. Moisture also lowers body temperature and can cause chills. The next layer consists of a shirt or sweater that insulates the body. Wool, goose down, and heavy polypropylenes are excellent insulators. The outer layer is a shell, or jacket, that keeps out wind and rain. Shells should be large enough to accommodate several layers of clothing underneath.
The advantage of layering is efficiency. Campers can peel off or add on layers of clothing to suit the weather and for personal comfort. Layering also allows moisture (usually perspiration) to escape. Wearing layers permits air circulation and helps keep the body dry: the drier the body, the warmer the camper. For this reason, campers should always carry rain pants and a rain jacket. Stocking hats, made of wool or polypropylene, also help retain body heat. Many campers take a small hat to wear at their campsite or while sleeping.
Two recent advances in outdoor apparel are Gore-Tex and fleece. Gore-Tex consists of several thin layers of fabric glued together. It allows perspiration to move away from the body and keeps out rain and moisture. These qualities make Gore-Tex an excellent outer layer. Many outdoor stores carry jackets, gloves, and hats made from the material.
Fleece is a soft, puffy synthetic fabric that comes in various densities. It provides a level of warmth equal to that of wool because it traps the body's warmth. Campers also like fleece because it dries very quickly and is lightweight. Fleece does not stop wind, however, and therefore is best used as a layer beneath a shell.

Whether campers are spending weeks on the Appalachian Trail or taking day hikes on nature trails, boots are probably their most important piece of gear. There are three types.
Heavyweights weigh about 1.8 kg (about 4 lb) per pair. They are constructed of heavy-duty leather and are very durable and water-resistant. Although heavyweights offer maximum support for feet and ankles when hiking over rough, rocky terrain, they have two disadvantages. Because of their durable construction, heavyweights require a long break-in period and can cause blisters in the process. Many campers also find the weight of the boots tiring.
Lightweights weigh around 1.1 kg (2.5 lb) per pair. They are usually constructed of fabric and leather, and they combine the support of a heavyweight boot with the comfort of a running shoe. Lightweights break in quickly and cause few blisters. While ideal for smooth trails and dry conditions, lightweights do not stand up to rough or soggy conditions. Their thin sole also allows rocks and other hard items on the trail to bruise the bottom of the foot during long hikes. Many campers pack lightweights or sandals to wear at the campsite. Lightweights allow the foot to breathe and cause less damage to plants around the campsite.
Midweights weigh from 1.1 to 1.8 kg (2.5 to 4 lb) and combine the best aspects of heavyweight and lightweight boots. Midweight boots are generally constructed of leather and are therefore highly water-resistant. They are extremely durable, but tend not to fatigue campers as much as heavyweights. Many midweights are considered all-purpose boots and are the best choice for first-time backpackers.
Exact fit of any boot is crucial. When trying a pair on in a store, campers should wear the same socks they plan to wear on the trail. Unlaced, the boot should have enough room so that a finger can be inserted tightly between the heel and back of the boot when the toes are scrunched toward the front. When laced, the boot should allow little or no heel slippage, and the toes should be able to wiggle freely. If possible, when testing a pair of boots in the store, walk up stairs and down a ramp, to check fit, and kick the toe against a wall to check shock impact. 

Backpacks
 The two types of backpacks most commonly used are external frame and internal frame. Use, trail conditions, and personal preference help determine which backpack is right. Each type has several distinct characteristics.
An external-frame backpack is ideal for hiking on established trails and is less expensive than an internal-frame model. The pack bag, where campers store their gear, is attached to a plastic or metal-tube frame and typically has lots of pockets for easy organization of gear. This type of backpack is cooler to wear because the frame keeps the pack off the back, allowing perspiration to evaporate. 
In an internal-frame model the frame is hidden within the pack bag. When properly fitted, the pack hugs a camper's back. Because the weight is close to the back, campers have better balance and control when scrambling over boulders, negotiating tough up-and-down terrain, or moving quickly. Because internal-frame models remain close to the back, campers can become very damp from perspiration.
It is important to try on a pack before purchase to make sure it fits. A bigger backpack is not necessarily better. In fact, campers who buy big packs usually find that they carry too much unnecessary gear. Salespeople are trained to match the weight a camper wishes to carry with the proper pack size. Pack frames and hip belts, which keep the pack close to the body, come in different sizes, helping to assure the right fit.
Many campers are tempted by packs with extra loops, straps, zippers, and other options. But a simple, well-made backpack suffices on most trips. Camping equipment stores may rent packs for weekend trips, enabling people to try different models before purchase.
When packing an external-frame pack, it is important to place heavy items at the top of the pack and close to the back. With an internal-frame pack, heavier objects should be packed toward the bottom, so that they are near the small of the back. Both methods distribute the pack's weight over the hips and allow the leg and abdominal muscles to carry most of the load. Otherwise the weight pulls against the shoulders, causing discomfort.

Tents are portable shelters made of lightweight fabrics. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most popular shape is the dome, or freestanding model. This model is easy to set up and does not require support from tree limbs or other objects.
Many tents are designated two-person, three-person, and so on, according to how many adults can comfortably sleep inside them. Tents range from small models that sleep just one camper to larger models that can accommodate groups of 12.
Manufacturers also provide a rating based on function. The most common ratings are three-season for tents that can be used in spring, summer, and fall, and four-season for tents that can be used throughout the year. Four-season tents usually have thicker walls for better insulation and stronger poles to withstand winter winds and accumulations of snow on the tent's roof.
Before purchasing a tent, campers should decide when and where they will use it. Summer-only camping does not require a tent built to withstand intense mountain winds. Camping in areas where it often rains calls for a tent with a watertight exterior, or rainfly, that keeps those inside it dry. A tent for warm weather camping should have plenty of vents for air circulation. A cover of netting over those vents prevents insects from entering. A ground cloth-a piece of waterproof material placed between the tent floor and the ground-helps protect the tent from damage and keep moisture out.
After buying a tent, practice setting it up. Practicing at home makes pitching the tent in windy or rainy conditions much easier.

Sleeping Bags and Pads Sleeping bags come with a variety of fillings and temperature ratings. Campers should choose a filling that best suits their needs. Goose down works best in dry cold. Bags stuffed with down are incredibly warm but lose their insulating capability if the down becomes wet. Synthetic materials, on the other hand, dry quickly and can still keep campers moderately warm even if they become damp. 
A temperature rating is displayed on the tag of most sleeping bags. A sleeping bag with a rating of 0 C (32 F) should keep a camper comfortable at temperatures above 0 C. But ratings can be misleading because they vary among manufacturers. Campers who normally become cold when sleeping should buy a bag with a rating 10 to 20 lower than the anticipated temperature. They might also consider a so-called mummy bag, which has a flap covering the neck and head. Mummy bags are close-fitting, compared with rectangular bags, leaving less cold-air space within the bag. It is a good idea to crawl inside the sleeping bag at the store and make sure it fits before purchasing it.
A sleeping pad, or mattress, can be another part of a camper's bed. Sleeping pads insulate the camper by creating a barrier between the bag and the cold ground. They may also provide cushioning. Solid, closed-cell foam pads are inexpensive and extremely lightweight. They provide good insulation but not much cushioning. An open-celled, or self-inflating, pad inflates to a thickness of as much as 2.5 cm (1 in). When this pad is unpacked and rolled out, air slowly enters the open foam cells within the pad through a valve. These pads provide more comfort and insulation than closed-cell pads but are more easily punctured.

IPROVISIONS The type and quantity of provisions to take corresponds to the type of camping trip. Many RVs have a stove, microwave oven, and refrigerator. Car campers can carry gas stoves for cooking and coolers for keeping food cold. In the backcountry, however, campers must consider provisions carefully as they will be unable to replenish them.
ACamping Stoves Backpackers rely on small, lightweight, one-burner gas stoves. These stoves can burn a variety of fuels, but the most common fuel is white gas. White gas leaves less residue than other fuels and evaporates more quickly should an accidental spill occur. Experienced campers take slightly more fuel than they expect to use. A stove repair kit and extra parts can prove helpful.
Camping stoves have a small rack that holds a pot slightly above the burner's flame. A small, lightweight pot with a lid requires less fuel and heats food and boils water faster than larger, lidless pots. Lids are especially important for conserving heat when camping above 900 m (3000 ft), because it takes more heat to boil water at higher altitudes. After buying a stove, campers should read the instructions and practice operating it at home.

Drinking Water
 Water in the backcountry must be properly treated before drinking to remove contaminants. Microscopic water-borne parasites can cause giardiasis, an illness whose symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal cramps. Boiling water for at least one minute kills these microbes.
Besides boiling, several other methods of purifying water are available. Hand-held, pump-action filters force water through porous ceramic or carbon-filled filters, which screen out tiny parasites and other debris. Iodine tablets, which are easy to carry, also purify drinking water, though some campers dislike the aftertaste. Filters and iodine tablets both allow campers to carry less fuel for boiling water, and therefore less weight. They also provide cool drinking water in a matter of minutes, which can be refreshing on a hot day.

Food
 Car campers and RV campers have the luxury of refrigeration for storing food. In the backcountry, however, campers must carry their food, and so lightweight, dehydrated, just-add-water meals are preferred. These meals also create less garbage for backpackers to carry out of the backcountry. Outdoor stores sell many varieties of dehydrated food.
Many campers augment their diet with fish from a lake or river, with berries growing near their campsite, or with other available foods. But they should be aware of local fishing regulations and be familiar with wild plants and their fruits, as many of them can cause illness.
The key to staying healthy and strong when backpacking is to eat large quantities of energy-rich foods. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fat all help a camper's body produce the necessary energy for a strenuous trip. Carrying a pack consumes many calories-up to 4000 a day-that campers need to replenish in order to maintain energy levels. In general, 0.9 kg (2 lb) of food per person per day should be enough. In winter campers should consume 1.1 kg (2.5 lb) per day because staying warm burns even more calories.
Regardless of the time of year, always take enough food to last an extra day. Additional food makes it easier to deal with an accident, an injury, or simply a desire to stay another night in a serene location.

SAFETY Safety should be at the forefront of every camper's mind. Each year the National Park Service warns that sunburn and sprains are the most common injuries sustained in the backcountry. Being prepared is the key. A wide-billed hat and a lightweight, long-sleeved shirt offer protection from the sun. Proper sunblock or suntan lotion is also necessary. Frequent rest stops are important on the trail. Fatigue causes campers to pay less attention to the trail, their location, and their own body, leaving them more vulnerable to accidents or injuries. 
Several potentially serious conditions can occur when camping. The most common are hypothermia, dehydration, and altitude sickness. All of these are preventable with proper planning and precautions.

Hypothermia occurs when the body becomes too chilled to generate enough warmth for vital organs. Most campers understand that hypothermia is a danger during cold weather, but it also can occur when temperatures rise well above freezing. Most cases occur when the outside temperature is between 7 and 10 C (45 and 50 F). 
Avoiding hypothermia requires several simple precautions. Stay dry and do not wear cotton clothing next to the skin, as it dries slowly and sucks away precious body warmth in the process. Eat, drink water, and rest frequently. Food helps campers maintain energy levels and stay warm. Overexertion can make campers wet with perspiration and weak.

Dehydration, or the loss of bodily fluids, is a concern in both hot and cold weather. The condition may occur as a result of excessive sweating, overeating, vomiting, diarrhea, or heat exhaustion. It causes muscles to become weak and thinking to become confused. Campers need to drink large quantities of water before they become thirsty, because thirst is not a reliable indicator of the body's needs. Drinking large quantities before hitting the trail helps provide the body with sufficient fluids. 

Altitude sickness, also known as mountain sickness, is caused by insufficient oxygen at high elevations. It causes such symptoms as dizziness, shortness of breath, and confusion, and can strike campers at relatively low elevations of about 2400 m (about 8000 ft). Campers who plan to backpack at higher altitudes often take a day or two to become accustomed to their new environment. They hike slowly when going higher-typically gaining no more than 300 m (1000 feet) in elevation a day. If they develop symptoms of altitude sickness, they should descend to a lower altitude quickly, before the condition becomes life-threatening.

Knowing Your Location Many beginning campers worry about becoming lost in the backcountry. The key, however, is staying found. Registering at a ranger station and leaving details of the planned route and return time enable officials to rescue injured campers and locate lost parties with ease. Remaining on designated trails and carrying a map and compass help campers keep track of their location. Remaining in a group also helps campers stay found.

CONSERVATION ETHICS In 1995 about 7.1 million people spent the night in campgrounds operated by the National Park Service, and 2.2 million more camped in the backcountry. With so many people enjoying the outdoors, the impact on the land is great. All land management agencies encourage park visitors to practice an ethic that leaves little or no imprint on the environment. 
Conscientious campers take out everything they carry in and stay on designated trails. They never take souvenirs, leaving rocks, plants, and animals where they found them. If they find a lost or injured animal, they remain at a distance and never touch the animal. Instead they report the animal to a ranger, game warden, or other official who is trained to work with wildlife. National parks request that visitors not feed wild animals. Some parks also prohibit dogs and other pets in the backcountry because they disturb birds and other wildlife. In the front country, campers should keep pets on leashes.
Many campers avoid building campfires in the backcountry, unless they find a metal fire ring or grill already there. Instead of breaking off branches or chopping small trees for firewood, they gather small pieces of wood that have fallen onto the ground. Washing dirty dishes and bathing in a stream, river, or lake can pollute water systems and should be avoided. Campers dispose of human waste by digging a hole 30 cm (10 in) deep at a distance of at least 80 m (250 ft) from any source of water. When campers finish their stay, they should cover the hole and carry out used toilet paper. These measures ensure that future campers who visit the campsite will find it clean.

FOR MORE INFORMATION Many organizations and groups can help beginning campers get started and provide useful information to experienced campers.
Campers can find out about commercial campgrounds and RVs in a variety of magazines and on the Internet. Several Internet sites provide RV campers with information about interesting destinations, campsite availability, and new developments and products.
For younger campers the Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts of America provide a good introduction to camping and outdoor life. Young adults may prefer the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS), Outward Bound, and the Student Conservation Association. All of these organizations stress safety, education, and conservation.
In addition to such government agencies as the National Park and Forest services, many membership organizations in the United States provide useful information for campers. The American Hiking Society, the Adirondack Mountain, Appalachian Mountain, and Sierra clubs, and The Mountaineers are just a few that cater to campers of all levels, from the novice to the seasoned veteran. These groups offer their members introductory courses, activities such as group outings and conservation days, and lectures and presentations on many subjects. Besides teaching camping skills and keeping members informed of conservation efforts, these clubs and organizations provide opportunities for camping enthusiasts to socialize.
Several organizations in Canada also provide information for campers. The Environmental Management Service of Canada, the National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada, and tourism departments in each province are just a few.


\3 Mt McKinley, Alaska + trecking/climbing gear

McKinley was named after the American president - highest of North America, 6194 m. situated near the Arctic circle. Denali is the original native name for this giant, meaning: 'The High One' Denali's South Summit was first climbed by Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper and Robert Tatum on June 7, 1913 The first ascent of the West Buttress route was made in 1951, by the party of Dr Bradford Washburn, well known for his excellent photographs of the Alaska Mountains The first winter ascent was made by Dave Johnston, Ray Genet & Art Davidson; the title of their book says it all: 'Minus 148?'. Read this before you even mention the words Winter and Denali in one sentence Denali's most used route is the West Buttress route (80% of all climbs), which has seen more than 20,000 climbers Roughly 50% of the climbers have reached the summit Until 1997, about 400 accidents were reported on the West Buttress route, which claimed the lives of 34 climbers, mostly while descending. Routes The most used route is the West Buttress route; I will post other route info later

Difficulty: the route is graded II, which is moderately difficult; however the high altitude, cold weather and other harsh conditions are more important than the technical grading. Previous mountaineering experience is essential: Winter camping, glacier travel and high altitude skills are needed and Denali is not the place to acquire these. Alaska is the biggest state of the USA and shares its borders with Canada and Russia. The main city is Anchorage, with about a quarter of a million residents. You can get there by plane, boat or via land. Plane is of course the fastest and easiest way to get to Alaska. There are few if any direct flights from abroad, so it is needed to fly to one of the big cities in the west first: Seattle, Vancouver, Los Angeles and San Francisco are major hubs. Expect to pay from $100 up for a one way ticket from Seattle. There are ferries leaving from Prince Rupert, Canada and Bellingham, Washington, but they only go as far as Haines, Alaska because of the dangers of the open sea near Anchorage. From Haines you can continue by car, it's about another 1200 km/ 750 miles. It is beautiful, but expensive (Car + passenger about $750 one way, Passenger only about $250 one way). But even with these steep prices, reservation is needed! Call Alaska Marine Highway: 0800-642-0066 One of the most interesting ways to get to Alaska is travel the famous Alaska Highway or Al-Can highway, about 4000km or 2500 miles from Seattle. Although called a highway it will not be you average line of smooth road Bring extra tires!

How to get to Talkeetna? From Anchorage you can take the train, bus, shuttle, car or plane to Talkeetna, the base for all Denali climbs. The train is nice but rather expensive, about $80 one way; the same price for a return by a shuttle bus.

Denali Overland Transport PO Box 330 Talkeetna AK 99676 (907)733-2384 E-mail: denaliak@alaska.net

Talkeetna Shuttle Service PO Box 468 Talkeetna AK 99676 (888)288-6008 E-mail: tshuttle@alaska.net

How to get to Denali? This is the most fun part; as most people don't have the time to travel through the woods and over the lower glacier they rent a plane and are being dropped off at Base camp! This is an exhilarating trip of about 35 minutes, an adventure in itself!

There are several air taxi's who have little price difference; so you better go for quality; we highly recommend Talkeetna Air Taxi who own a bunk house (included) to wait out the bad days in Talkeetna and a shop where you can rent or buy your last minute supplies and gear. More value is added by the excellent and up to date advice from the staff. They specialize in glacier landings and air transportation to various peaks in the Alaska Range for climbing expeditions as well as scenic flights of Mt. McKinley and a variety of air charters. They were founded in 1947 by the legendary Don Sheldon, world renown bush pilot and pioneer of glacier landings around Mt. McKinley. Contact Paul Roderick Owner/Climber of TAT by email: flytat@alaska.net or check out their website: http://www.talkeetnaair.com Where to Stay? Anchorage: In Anchorage there are several hotels and B&B's, depending on the size of your wallet; we checked out the International Backpackers Hostel,which is about $15 pppn (but the taxi might cost $20), but both the caretaker and the other guests (no climbers) were completely bonkers and we didn't feel safe enough to leave our gear out of sight! It is also away from the city center. There is also a youth hostel downtown, but we haven't visited that one yet. Any comments from other climbers are welcome!

A much better place to go is the Earth Bed and Breakfast: The B&B is run by Margriet & Bill and it is a great home for climbers, both before and after the climb. There is a spacious garden where you can organise your stuff before the trip and there is a nice livingroom and breakfast (included) table where you can relax and exchange stories afterwards. It is just a few minutes of walking to the heart of Anchorage; Margriet speaks Spanish, Dutch, German, Italian, French and English fluently! Don't forget to ask Bill (who is a professional guide and can organise really cool trips for you!) about this crazy Iditasport race, many hundreds of miles through Alaska, in the winter, on a mountain bike! It costs about $35 pppn, including breakfast and shower/bath, depending on the season and room; For more info call Margriet van Laake: 1001 W. 12th Avenue Anchorage, Alaska 99501; Phone 1-907-279-9907 Fax 1-907-279-9862 Email: earthtrs@alaska.net or check out their site! Talkeetna: Use the bunkhouse of the Talkeetna Air Taxi (free of charge when you book their airtaxi) or just camp outside their buildings for free Denali: Hey, what are you coming for!

TRECKING Gear

This is a technical mountain, so make sure to bring gear. Make sure to check the official Denali National park and Preserve site as well! Needed gear is:

Stiff mountaineering boots (double plastic, leather shoes will make your toes freeze off) Over boots (super gators won't do) Good crampons, including tools and spare parts for them. Snowshoes or Ski's needed for the lower parts of the mountain. Don't travel without them! A comfortable climbing harness At least two stoves per party, including the gear to clean them! At least one jumar; this will help you on the steep parts and secure you as well. A figure 8 for rappelling if needed At least one short and one long prussik rope A schlinge A headlamp and spare batteries Karabiners Ropes! Not just for yourself, while traveling, but also to use for your sleds, to pin down your tent, glacier rescue etc. A pickel/long ice axe and the knowledge to use it Gore-Tex or similar Jacket and pants. A hat to protect you from the sun Fleece sweater and down vest. Thermal underwear Glacier glasses with nose protection, preferably 2. A complete glove system: a few pairs of mittens a Gore-Tex over-mittens. Bring extra pairs of mittens so you can change if one pair becomes wet.
 Advisable is: Aspirin: you will encounter some headaches; forget the diamox, this is not advisable as it may get you killed if it takes away the symptoms of altitude disease The rest of the mountain medical kit Loads of film and a few camera's! You may consider bringing a video camera as this will be an unbelievable trip! Sleds to carry your food and gear up the (lower parts of the) mountain. These will be supplied by the air taxis.

Tips
 Don't forget to check out the Denali National park and Preserve site for the official guidelines and registration form! Time to climb and seasons: You can climb Denali from the end of April to the end of July, each bringing it's own advantages: In May it will be much colder with less daylight, but as a result there will be better snow bridges over the crevasses and better opportunities to land an air taxi on the glacier. In June/July it will never be dark, will be warmer, but also the crevasses will be more dangerous. Going really late in the season will probably mean that you won't be able to get picked up again as the planes won't be able to land on the exposed glaciers; this means a 10 day walk through the forest! Language: If you understand this sentence, you won't have a problem, although on Denali you will many other tongues as well. Money: US $ (as on the other 6 summits) Visa & permits: None required for entering the USA as a tourist; you will need a permit to climb Denali, which should be applied for 60 days in advance: the following is taken from the official registration form: '1.A 60 day preregistration period is required for climbing on Mount McKinley and Mount Foraker. This registration form is due at the Talkeetna Ranger Station 60 days prior to your climb date. The leader of your expedition is responsible for compiling the registration forms and deposits for all expedition members and submitting them in one packet to the Talkeetna Ranger Station. 2. A Mountaineering Special Use Fee of one hundred and fifty dollars ($150.00 US currency) will be charged to each expedition member attempting Mount McKinley or Mount Foraker. 3. Registered climbers are required to check in and out at the Talkeetna Ranger Station. This includes expeditions originating on the north side of the Alaska Range. Expeditions should allow two hours for the check in process at the Talkeetna Ranger Station. Expedition members will be required to provide a pictured piece of identification. Your expedition may check in and out during our regular hours of operation: 8:00am - 6:00pm, seven days a week. It is best to arrange for an appointment prior to your arrival. 4. Expeditions are permitted to add or substitute one new member to their expedition. This new member must pay the $25.00 deposit and be registered 30 days prior to the start date of the expedition. 5. If you plan to use a guide service, make certain that the service is authorized by Denali National Park and Preserve. Illegal guiding is prohibited and your climb could be canceled at any time. 6. Read the National Park Service publication, Mountaineering - Denali National Park and Preserve, which covers search and rescue requirements, clean climbing requirements, high altitude medical problems, glacier hazards and self-sufficiency. You should have a solid understanding of the potentially serious medical problems and the extreme mental and physical stresses associated with high altitude mountaineering.

Note: on the form are no email addresses, but I sent my application to DENA_Talkeetna_Office@nps.gov and it worked out fine.

Food and drinks: Salmon is what the bears eat, and so can you! Beware: you cannot bring Freeze-dried meat into the country! Only commercially canned meat and meatless freeze-dried food can be brought in! Vaccinations: One good thing about climbing is a western country is that no needles are needed in your behind. Politics and other hazards: Although some people are still paranoid about the Russian border being close, this is probably one of the safest areas in the world. There are some native groups protesting against the taking and abusing of their land (oil), but nothing violent\

\4 Mt Elbrus - considered highest in Europe

Summit of Europe, 5642m above sea level.

No, the Mont Blanc is not the highest mountain in Europe! In fact it is not even in the top5 as there are many higher mountains in the beautiful but war-torn Caucasus. Enjoy the enormous snow slopes and celebrate with cheap Vodka!

Fact & Figures Elbrus has two summits, the west summit is the highest: 5642m, the east summit is just a bit lower: 5621m The local (Balkar) name: 'Mingi-Tau' means: 'Resembling a thousand mountains', because Elbrus is so big... First ascent of east summit (5621m): 1868 First ascent of west summit (5642m): 1874 In 1967 the Soviet party organized a mass climbing and about 2500 people participated; although most of them had never seen a mountain up close before... There is a cable car running: it starts at 2200m in Azau, the first stop is Stary Krugozor, 2900m; the second stop is Mir station, 3500m. From mir a chairlift can take you to 3750m. At the end of this chairlift are 'the Barrels' and that's just what they are: old huge barrels, in each of which 4 people can sleep.

Routes The normal route is along the cable cars, past the barrels up the Garabashi glacier. Just follow the big poles up the snowboarding area. After about an hour and a half you will see the remains of the Pruitt 11, the old hut that burnt down in August 1998. The remains are found on a ridge leading up; the best camping spots are on the ridge, parallel to it, about 300m to the right. If you look up to the east summit (which is closest) you will see some rocks halfway, these are the Pastukhov rocks, 4800m. Is it a good idea to make an acclimatization walk to these rocks the one or two days before the summit attempt. Below the rocks the route will get steeper and crampons are advised, certainly in the summit night when all the snow is frozen solid. From Pastukhov rocks the route bends slightly to the left until it traverses to the saddle between the two summits. You will pass the remains of an old hut on the saddle and will traverse the west summit to the north. After a few rocks, make a left turn and go up to the steep part leading up to the summit plateau. Go straight to the little hill in front of you, this is the highest of the three sub peaks of the west summit and is marked with an iron triangular shaped sign with a machine gun and a pickel (?!?)

Stories Soon I will post my stories here about: leaving for Moscow 5 days after we entered our new house in Amsterdam (yes we did find our gear in all the boxes!) Meeting our climbing partner Niall, whom we had never seen before... The hotel in Moscow with 3000+ rooms and the caring of the Russian women The trip to the Baksan valley which probably was more lethal than the mountains itself The daytrip up Cheget mountain and the two day-hike up the Azau valley The climbing of Elbrus: broken cable cars, Russian climbers, Snowboard chicks in bikini, sudden storms, a great summit night and the call from the summit.

How to get there? The easiest way to get to Elbrus is by air and bus: fly from Moscow to Mineralnye Vody (MRV) with Mineralnye Vody airlines or Vnukovo airlines (return trip about $100, if you let a Russian travel agent book it, else it might be doubled). There are also direct flights from Munich to MRV, but it is much cheaper to fly via Moscow and it gives you the chance to see this great city as well! From MRV take a bus to Terskol, twice a day, although not recommended because of the long trip and the overcrowded bus. It is better to arrange a private shuttle with your travel agent (about $50); that will take you and your luggage reasonably safe to the valley in about 4 hours. In the Valley you can walk from Terskol or Cheget in about 30 minutes to Azau, where the cable cars starts.

Where to Stay? Moscow: we recommend hotel Rossia /Russia; it is one of the biggest hotels in the world (3000+ rooms), but it's not too pricey , about $60 for a double room including a good breakfast buffet. It's situated next to the Kremlin on the red Square side, so the location is perfect. Baksan Valley: try the cheap Sporthotel in Cheget: although half is still not finished the other half is all right. The food is good and cheap and so is the Vodka. It is situated on the foot of Cheget mountain which is an excellent place for a day hike up the ski slopes. Don't forget to visit the "Deep Purple Bar' in the basement and have an Elbrus beer!

Azau: the best place is Anatoli's place at the bottom Cable station: two good meals a day and 3-6person rooms for about $5 pppn.!

On Elbrus: You can camp near Mir Station (3500m), the cable car is running until about 15.00. You can sleep in the Barrels at 3800m, but these are filled with Russian snowboarders and mountaineers most of the time, so don't forget your tent!

There are many good spots between Mir and the Barrels, as well as higher up the mountain; the best site for a basecamp is the right one of the two rocky ridges going up from about 4100-4200m.

You can camp at Pastukhov rocks as well, but it will be hard to find a flat area and it is very exposed.

Gear: This is a non-technical but cold and high mountain, so make sure to bring gear. Needed gear is: Stiff mountaineering boots (double plastic, or at least crampon proof) A headlamp and spare batteries A pickel/long ice axe if you are comfortable with it; it is not really needed as the route is nowhere stepper than 35 degrees, but I found it safe on the descent of the mountain. A 4-season tent that can stand strong winds! Gore-tex or similar Jacket and pants. You will meet quite some clouds, wind and maybe snow on the way up! Fleece sweater and/or down vest. Thermal underwear Glacier glasses! Without them you will be blinded within a day; you will wear them even inside your tent! Gloves: it will get cold on summit night and in the mornings on the mountain as well. A mittens system -thick fleece mittens with Gore-Tex over mittens- are advised. Gaiters

Advisable is: Aspirin: you will encounter some headaches; forget the diamox, this is not advisable as it may get you killed if it takes away the symptoms of altitude disease. Lots of film and a camera! Get acclimatized well before you summit and you will notice the brilliant views over the Caucasus!

Tips: Time to climb and seasons: The mountains will be really cold in the fall, winter, and spring. So climb in the 'warm' months of summer: Jun-Sep.

Language: some people will speak a few words of English, but most will speak Russian only, so bring a Russian guide. In Moscow many people speak English, but only in the center of the city.

Money: Rubles, Check the bank or the web for the latest currency values. Be sure to exchange enough $$$ in Moscow as local money will be a problem in the Baksan valley

Visa: most foreigners need a visa to enter. Get an invite from a Russian travel agent or hotel and you will be able to buy one at your local consulate. There are many hotels that offer this service (faxing an invitation) for about $50; when you arrive you will have to check in your passport/visa, which will be validated the next day.

Food and drinks: This is the land of Vodka! Bit also here is an abundance of Pepsi and Coca cola and Fanta; the water is mostly very clean and tastes good; there are several mineral springs in the valley. The food is simple but nice, lots of cabbage, soups and meat; also some salads can be available. Vaccinations: Not necessary

Politics and other hazards: of course the reason that the Caucasus appeared on the world map is because of the endless war in Chechnya, which is only about 200km away, but there are a lot of high mountains in between, so little of the war is noticeable in the Valley. There are no strong separatist forces in the Elbrus region, although there is a 'weight control' post on the way to MRV where they don't check your weight!