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ANTARCTICA

@Antarctica:Geography

 Location: continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle

 Map references: Antarctic Region

 Area:
 total area: 14 million sq km (est.)
 land area: 14 million sq km (est.)
 comparative area: slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
 note: second-smallest continent (after Australia)

 Land boundaries: none, but see entry on International disputes

 Coastline: 17,968 km

 Maritime claims: none, but see entry on International Disputes

 International disputes: Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic
 Treaty Summary below); sections (some overlapping) claimed by
 Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross
 Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other
 nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and
 have made no claims themselves (the US reserves the right to do so);
 no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west
 and 150 degrees west

 Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and
 distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West
 Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has
 the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along
 the coast and average slightly below freezing

 Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock,
 with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain
 ranges up to 4,897 meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts
 of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area,
 and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves
 along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute
 11% of the area of the continent

 Natural resources: none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium,
 copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and
 hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities

 Land use:
 arable land: 0%
 permanent crops: 0%
 meadows and pastures: 0%
 forest and woodland: 0%
 other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)

 Irrigated land: 0 sq km

 Environment:
 current issues: in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield,
 which protects the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation,
 had dwindled to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975
 when measurements were first taken
 natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from
 the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the
 plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along
 the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West
 Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
 international agreements: NA

 Note: the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during
 summer more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than
 is received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly
 uninhabitable

@Antarctica:People

 Population: no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally
 staffed research stations
 Summer (January) population: over 4,115 total; Argentina 207,
 Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA,
 Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32, Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210,
 Japan 59, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39,
 Poland NA, South Africa 79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA,
 US 1,666, former USSR 565 (1989-90)
 Winter (July) population: over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia
 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73, China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace
 5, India 1, Japan 38, South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa
 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA, US 225, former USSR 313 (1989-90)
 Year-round stations: 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1,
 Chile 3, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2,
 South Korea 1, NZ 1, Poland 1, South Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3,
 former USSR 6 (1990-91)
 Summer only stations: over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile
 5, Germany 3, India 1, Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South
 Africa 1, Spain 1, Sweden 2, UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5
 (1989-90); note - the disintegration of the former USSR has placed the
 status and future of its Antarctic facilities in doubt; stations may
 be subject to closings at any time because of ongoing economic
 difficulties

@Antarctica:Government

 Names:
 conventional long form: none
 conventional short form: Antarctica

 Digraph: AY

 Type:
 Antarctic Treaty Summary: The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December
 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal
 framework for the management of Antarctica. Administration is carried
 out through consultative member meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty
 Consultative Meeting was in Japan in April 1993. Currently, there are
 42 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 16 acceding.
 Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim
 portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and
 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and some other nations that have made
 no claims have reserved the right to do so. The US does not recognize
 the claims of others. The year in parentheses indicates when an
 acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while
 no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory.
 Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
 Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are -
 Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989),
 Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989),
 Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain
 (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the US, and Russia. Acceding
 (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are -
 Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba
 (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987),
 Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea
 (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and
 Ukraine (1992).
 Article 1: area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military
 activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military
 personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any
 other peaceful purpose
 Article 2: freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall
 continue
 Article 3: free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation
 with the UN and other international agencies
 Article 4: does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial
 claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in
 force
 Article 5: prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive
 wastes
 Article 6: includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of
 60 degrees 00 minutes south
 Article 7: treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial
 observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations,
 and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the
 introduction of military personnel must be given
 Article 8: allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by
 their own states
 Article 9: frequent consultative meetings take place among member
 nations
 Article 10: treaty states will discourage activities by any country in
 Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty
 Article 11: disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned
 or, ultimately, by the ICJ
 Articles 12, 13, 14: deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending
 the treaty among involved nations
 Other agreements: more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty
 consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed
 Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964);
 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention
 on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a
 mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently
 rejected; in 1991 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the
 Antarctic Treaty was signed and awaits ratification; this agreement
 provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five
 specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental
 impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also
 prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except
 scientific research; 14 parties have ratified Protocol as of April
 1995

 Legal system: US law, including certain criminal offenses by or
 against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under
 jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to
 Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C.
 section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the
 following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The
 taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous
 plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific
 areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation
 into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the
 Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines
 and 1 year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce,
 Transportation, and Interior share enforcement responsibilities.
 Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires
 expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the
 Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State,
 Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as
 required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information contact Permit
 Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation,
 Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703-306-1031).

Economy

 Overview: No economic activity at present except for fishing off the
 coast and small-scale tourism, both based abroad.

@Antarctica:Transportation

 Ports: none; offshore anchorage

 Airports: 42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15
 national governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility
 operated by commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization;
 helicopter pads at 36 of these locations; runways at 14 locations are
 gravel, sea ice, glacier ice, or compacted snow surface suitable for
 wheeled fixed-wing aircraft; no paved runways; 15 locations have
 snow-surface skiways limited to use by ski-equipped planes - 11
 runways/skiways 1,000 to 3,000 m, 5 runways/skiways less than 1,000 m,
 8 runways/skiways greater than 3,000 m, and 5 of unspecified or
 variable length; airports generally subject to severe restrictions and
 limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions;
 airports do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the
 respective governmental or non-governmental operating organization
 required for landing

@Antarctica:Communications

 Telephone system:
 local: NA
 intercity: NA
 international: NA

 Radio:
 broadcast stations: AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
 radios: NA

 Television:
 broadcast stations: NA
 televisions: NA

@Antarctica:Defense Forces

 Note: the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military
 nature, such as the establishment of military bases and
 fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing
 of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or
 equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes